Plagiarism Witch Hunts Cause Harm

January 7, 2024

We are at the end of the first week of January 2024 and so far, the media (at least in North America) has made plagiarism a topic of the year. Claudine Gay, the (now former) President of Harvard University resigned on January 2. Her case has been written about extensively in the news and I won’t repeat all the details here. I will highlight one point that is relevant for this post. Writing for the New Yorker, Emma Green highlights that “what ultimately brought Gay down wasn’t the furor over her testimony. It was accusations of plagiarism in her scholarly work, which has focused in part on Black political participation.” I’ve given media commentary on this case here and here.

One of the people who campaigned against Gay on social media was William Ackman, a billionaire hedge fund manager. Next thing we hear in the media is that Ackman’s wife, Neri Oxman, a former M.I.T. professor, has been accused of plagiarism. Ackman counters by saying that he will ensure that all professors at M.I.T., including its president, will have all their work reviewed for plagiarism and he will fund the efforts to do so.

What is Plagiarism?

Before I go any further, let’s back for a moment and talk about what plagiarism actually is. In my book, Plagiarism in Higher Education: Tackling Tough Topic in Higher Education, I explore the historical and contemporary understandings of plagiarism. I’ve also researched academic misconduct and integrity policies. In one study, I conducted an in-depth comparative analysis of the definitions of plagiarism at twenty (20) different universities. From my research, I can say with certainty that there is no singular or universally accepted definition of plagiarism. Some universities say plagiarism is only about copying text without attribution, whereas others might go further including the plagiarism of ideas, computer code, or musical composition.

We all think we are talking about the same thing when we say the word, “plagiarism”, but that isn’t necessarily the case. What most people can agree on is that copy-and-paste without attribution is generally viewed as being unacceptable, regardless if it is intentional or just sloppy scholarship. What we do about plagiarism when we find it is another matter about which there is no consensus.

The Weaponization of Plagiarism

Jonathan Bailey hit the nail on the head earlier this week when he said that plagiarism has been weaponized. Plagiarism investigations post-graduation are less about student success than they are about discrediting and causing harm to the person being investigated. I have yet to see a plagiarism investigation conducted after someone has graduated that is not a search-and-destroy mission. Side note: Phill Dawson has a great chapter on surveillance and the weaponization of academic integrity in his book, Defending Assessment Security in a Digital World. If you haven’t already read Phill’s book, I highly recommend it.

Plagiarism allegations can be shrouded in moral righteousness, but as Ackerman has recently shown, someone with enough resources and motivation can take plagiarism investigations to a whole new level. Scrutinizing the work of the professoriate at scale for plagiarism would be unprecedented. If Ackerman follows through, it could mean that every university president and professor in the United States and beyond could have their academic work from their student days scrutinized like never before.

What’s the Difference Between Student Plagiarism and Professional Plagiarism?

This could no doubt be a topic of great debate, but for me, the answer is pretty straightforward. Students are still learning. It is our job as educators to ensure students have every opportunity to learn. There’s oodles of research to show that first-year university students are more likely to cheat and commit plagiarism than senior students. First-year students need more support to learn writing, citing, and referencing skills to help them be successful as they move through their post-secondary programs.

As students advance through their academic programs we expect them to build their knowledge, skills, and competencies. By the time someone graduates, we, as an academic community and a society, expect that they have the skills and knowledge they need to be able to engage in professional work. That’s the basic idea behind graduation: you have successfully completed your academic program and you are now qualified to work in your chosen field.

As a result, we hold professors and administrators to higher academic and professional standards than students. Presumably, professors have already learned the foundations of their field of study, as well as basic understandings of academic and research integrity. In other words, by the time someone is a professor, they should know better.

Post-Facto Plagiarism Allegations and Investigations 

A retroactive investigation into a person’s academic work while they were a student is often an exercise in discrediting someone in their current professional role. Pointing fingers after the fact is rarely helpful. Addressing allegations of student academic misconduct is the responsibility of the educational institution. Failing to do so reflects poorly on the institution, as much as on the student (or alum) who allegedly engaged in misconduct. There have been cases in which universities have rescinded degrees after graduation upon a finding of academic misconduct proven long after convocation. I recall one such case from my own university some years ago. In other words, there is a lot at stake.

I am not suggesting that post-graduation cases of plagiarism or other forms of academic misconduct should be ignored or swept under the rug. I am saying that if an allegation of misconduct is not brought forward or investigated until after graduation, the opportunity for student learning has been lost, and the consequences can be devastating for the individual whose work comes under scrutiny. 

Where Are all the Graduate Supervisors?

In the cases of Claudine Gay and Neri Oxman, the allegations of plagiarism focused, at least in part, on their graduate theses. As a plagiarism scholar who is also a professor and a graduate supervisor, I cannot help but ask myself: What about the academic advisors who supervised these dissertations? Why is no one talking to them?

PhD dissertations do not just get posted in an online public archive without scrutiny. There are multiple levels of reviews and revisions, as well as a rigorous examination at the end. At any respectable university, the thesis is examined, in writing, by oral defence, or both, by academics who have expertise related to the thesis. The graduate supervisor, and often others, sign off on the work. Sometimes, there is a signature page that becomes part of the front matter of a thesis before it is archived in the public record. The signatures from supervisors and examiners serve as a public attestation of quality of the approved thesis.

If you ask me, every person who signs off on a graduate student thesis bears some responsibility for its quality. This is not to say that we should absolve students of their responsibility to act with integrity, but I am saying that student plagiarism is as much a collective responsibility of the academic community as it is an individual one. Why are journalists not asking the graduate supervisors or professors for commentary about their former students? Surely, any graduate supervisor who believes in their former student’s work and its worth would be willing to stand up and defend not only the student, but their own competence as PhD supervisors — especially after they have supported the doctoral studies and signed off on the work?

Human Rights, Anyone?

In North America we have been obsessed with witch hunts for centuries. So far, 2024 is shaping up to be the year when plagiarism becomes the weapon of the right/righteous to prosecute and punish. The accused are publicly shamed and humiliated as investigations become the latest scandal for the media to cover.

In the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the United Nations states that even in criminal matters, “Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of any criminal charge against him.” (See Article 10). Yet, when it comes to public intellectuals and high-profile academics, members of the public and media act as judge and jury, and the right to a fair and impartial investigation gets thrown out the window in favour of a witch hunt.

Article 11 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, goes on to say, “Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees necessary for his defence.” Somehow, public allegations of academic misconduct rarely allow for the presumption of innocence. Individuals who are publicly accused of plagiarism are presumed to be guilty and are forced to prove their own innocence. (Also sounds a bit like a witch hunt, right?) In other words, intellectuals subjected to public allegations of plagiarism are sometimes treated worse than common criminals.

And let’s not forget the first and most important part of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.” (Article 1). 

Those of us who regularly serve on academic and research misconduct panels know that following due process is an essential aspect of the work. Even when there are findings of misconduct and individuals are held responsible, we focus on the behaviour and not the person. Academic and research misconduct investigations and hearings, when done ethically, are often complex and difficult undertakings. Misconduct hearing members have a responsibility to proceed with care and caution, weighing multiple and sometimes conflicting details. We distinguish between a person’s actions and their value as a human being. Even when there is a finding of misconduct, we do not judge a person as being good or evil; we do our best to uphold human rights, which includes the right to dignity.

In public scandals about academic misconduct and plagiarism, individuals under scrutiny can be quickly stripped of their dignity, their reputation, and their livelihood. I am not suggesting that misconduct should not be investigated and addressed, but I am suggesting that when we, as a society, fail to uphold basic human rights when investigating plagiarism and other forms of academic misconduct, we have lost our humanity. Upholding human rights should be a fundamental aspect of all misconduct investigations.

References

CBC News. (2018, September 19). Alberta judge upholds university’s right to rescind master’s degree over plagiarism. https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/alberta-judge-university-plagiarism-masters-degree-1.4830594

Bill Ackman to check all MIT faculty members for plagiarism after wife Neri Oxman accused of copying parts of thesis. (2024, January 6). South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/world/united-states-canada/article/3247498/bill-ackman-check-all-mit-faculty-members-plagiarism-after-wife-neri-oxman-accused-copying-parts

Dawson, P. (2021). Defending assessment security in a digital world: Preventing e-cheating and supporting academic integrity in higher education. Routledge. 

Green, E. (2024, January 5). Why some academics are reluctant to call Claudine Gay a plagiairst. New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/news/q-and-a/why-some-academics-are-reluctant-to-call-claudine-gay-a-plagiarist

Haidar, E. H., & Kettles, C. E. (2024, January 3). Harvard President Claudine Gay Resigns, Shortest Tenure in University History. Harvard Crimson. https://www.thecrimson.com/article/2024/1/3/claudine-gay-resign-harvard/

Hartocollis, A., & Betts, A. (2024, January 5). Wife of Investor Who Pushed for Harvard President’s Exit Is Accused of Plagiarism. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/05/us/plagiarism-bill-ackman-neri-oxman-claudine-gay-harvard.html

Mazer, J. P., & Hunt, S. K. (2012). Tracking plagiarism electronically: First-year students’ perceptions of academic dishonesty and reports of cheating behaviour in the basic communication course. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 8(2), 57-68. https://ojs.unisa.edu.au/index.php/IJEI/article/view/810/ 

McMutrie, B. (2024, January 4). A Brief Guide to How Colleges Adjudicate Plagiarism Cases. Chronicle of Higher Education. https://www.chronicle.com/article/a-brief-guide-to-how-colleges-adjudicate-plagiarism-cases

Romo, V. (2024, January 3). Claudine Gay’s resignation highlights the trouble with regulating academic writing. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2024/01/03/1222588885/harvard-president-claudine-gay-resigns-plagiarism

United Nations. (n.d.). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights 

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This blog has had over 3 million views thanks to readers like you. If you enjoyed this post, please “like” it or share it on social media. Thanks!

Sarah Elaine Eaton, PhD, is a faculty member in the Werklund School of Education at the University of Calgary, Canada. Opinions are my own and do not represent those of my employer.

Sarah Elaine Eaton, PhD, Editor-in-Chief, International Journal for Educational Integrity

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How to Get Your Academic Article Published in a High Quality Journal

January 2, 2024
An info graphic with a title, by-line and five blocks of text. There is a graphic of a pencil with five arrows coming out of it.

This month marks the beginning of my fourth year as editor-in-chief of the International Journal for Educational Integrity. Before that I served as co-editor and before that, I served as a reviewer and article author. Last year, the journal received its first impact factor (4.6), putting it in the 95th percentile of all journals in the field of educational research. Since that happened, the number of submissions the journal has received seems to have skyrocketed. Every week I am reviewing submissions from authors eager to have their work published in a Q1 (top quartile) academic journal. In this post I offer five tips on how to get your work published in a top-ranking journal.

Tip #1: Read the Aims and Scope

Ensure your manuscript fits with the aims and scope of the journal. The number one reason I reject manuscripts outright without sending them for peer review is that the topic of the manuscript has no relevance whatsoever to our journal. Reputable journals publish their aims and scope on their website. As an example, here are the Aims and Scope of the International Journal for Educational Integrity. 

As an interdisciplinary journal, we receive submissions from just about every academic field you can imagine, but just because a journal is interdisciplinary does not mean that anything goes. When I get a manuscript about the efficacy rates of a pesticide or new developments related to geo-spatial heat maps, I reject it automatically because the topic is outside the scope of our journal. Manuscripts that are about education broadly, but that have no direct connection to ethics and integrity, also get a desk rejection.

If you want to publish your article in a high quality journal, ensure it aligns with the aims and scope of the journal.

Tip #2: Focus on Quality

Poor-quality writing is one of the main reasons manuscripts get a desk rejection. Ensure the quality of your manuscript is your top priority. Markers of quality include, but are not limited to, writing that is comprehensible and error-free. (The odd typo can be fixed during the revision process.) Quality also means including a literature review that demonstrates that you understand previous scholarship in the field, a detailed methods section, and an in-depth analysis. The findings should show original contributions to the field, along with the limitations of the work.

Articles that are theoretical or conceptual in nature should still have a clear structure and be organized in a way that the reader can follow. The problem/gap/hook heuristic is one way to frame a conceptual article so that the value to the reader is clear.

Submissions that are difficult to read, either because of poor writing or because they lack organization, are more likely to be rejected. This does not mean that all articles have to follow a cookie-cutter formula. Unconventional articles can be interesting and valuable, but the reader still has to be able to follow them.

Tip #3: Follow the Submission Guidelines

Ensure your submission fits with the submission guidelines of the journal. Do not wait for a desk rejection and then tell the editor you can reformat the manuscript. Submit according to the guidelines.

I have had prospective authors argue with me via e-mail when I reject or request a revision to their submissions on the basis that their manuscript does not follow the journal’s guidelines. Arguing with an editor about how you do not have time or interest in submitting according to the journal’s guidelines is unlikely to persuade an editor that your submission should be reviewed. Saying that you will revise or reformat the submission only if your article is accepted is a fast track to a rejection.

Tip #4: Do Your Homework

Read recently published articles in the journal to understand what kinds of submissions make the cut. It can also be helpful to understand who the editors and editorial board members are and how their expertise contributes to the journal.

I reviewed a submission that claimed that female students were inherently prone to academic cheating because of their gender. (The main argument was that women are more morally corrupt than men.) Um…. Pardon me?!

Needless to say that the submission was problematic (and rejected) for a number of reasons, not the least of which was a lack of scientific basis for the claims made in the submission. As I conducted my preliminary editorial review, it occurred to me that the authors probably had no idea that the editor was a woman… And why would they, when only 8% of editors-in-chief of academic journals are women? It might not have even occurred to them to check. (If they had, they could have saved themselves the trouble of submitting…)

A quick check of the Editorial Board can give you a glimpse into who provides leadership for a journal. Reviewing the information about the editorial board is likely to provide an incomplete picture at best, but it can be helpful.

Tip #5: Provide Value 

Ensure that your manuscript adds something new to the existing knowledge base. The best academic articles provide value to the reader and the wider scientific or scholarly community. Always keep your reader in mind. One reason submissions get rejected is that the authors are so self-absorbed in themselves and their own ideas or goals is that they fail to consider individual readers as well as the collective readership of the journal as a whole.

When prospective authors beg me to publish their article because they need a publication to graduate, get hired, keep their jobs, or get promoted, my heart aches. This is a sign of systemic dysfunction of academia in general, but it is a one that a journal editor cannot solve. The article itself must provide value to the reader or the piece is unlikely to get published. The more value you can provide to the readers, the more likely it is your manuscript will be published in a high-quality journal.

There are lots of other things to say about how to get your work published in a high-quality academic journal, but I’ll stop for now, as this covers some of the basics. I hope these tips are helpful for getting your academic work published in the coming year(s).

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This blog has had over 3 million views thanks to readers like you. If you enjoyed this post, please “like” it or share it on social media. Thanks!

Sarah Elaine Eaton, PhD, is a faculty member in the Werklund School of Education at the University of Calgary, Canada. Opinions are my own and do not represent those of my employer.

Sarah Elaine Eaton, PhD, Editor-in-Chief, International Journal for Educational Integrity

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Unveiling the Handbook of Academic Integrity (2nd ed.) in Dubai

December 28, 2023
A poster with a blue background. There is a white banner at the top with university logos. The poster contains an image of a book cover and faces of individuals associated with the book.

The 1st Asia -Middle East – Africa Conference on Academic and Research Integrity (ACARI) 2023, 17-19 December at Middlesex University Dubai. It was against this backdrop that the highly anticipated Handbook of Academic Integrity (2nd ed.), published by Springer, was unveiled at a dazzling soft launch, marking a milestone in the book’s journey and the evolution of academic integrity knowledge-sharing and community-building.

The handbook is now in its final stages of production, and the standalone second edition will be released in hard copy in January, 2024. To celebrate, Dr. Zeenath Reza Khan, who serves as one of the handbook’s section editors and contributors, and was a co-chair of the 1st Asia -Middle East – Africa Conference on Academic and Research Integrity (ACARI) 2023, 17-19 December led the organization of the soft launch for the handbook during the conference.

The launch was held during the closing ceremony of the conference on the final day in an auditorium at the prestigious Middlesex University Dubai, was both festive and scholarly, as it brought together educators, researchers, and advocates for academic integrity. In addition to conference delegates, a number of esteemed dignitaries attended including, His Excellency, Jamal Hossain, Consul General of Bangladesh to UAE; Dr. Mohammad Ali Reza Khan, Award-winning Expert Wildlife Specialist, Dubai Municipality, along with Professor Cedwyn Fernandes, Pro Vice Chancellor of Middlesex University and Director of Middlesex University Dubai. Special thanks to Ms. Rania Sheir, Senior Specialist, Entrepreneurship and Innovation, Ministry of Education, UAE, who not only attended the launch, but also posted about it on LinkedIn.

A screenshot of a LinkedIn post.

The Handbook, meticulously curated by leading experts in the field, is a compendium of insights, strategies, and best practices aimed at upholding the ethical practices in academia and research. It covers a diverse range of topics, from plagiarism to artificial intelligence, to the promotion of ethical behaviour in academic research, and much more. The multidimensional approach of the Handbook of Academic Integrity  ensures that it caters to the needs of educators, administrators, and students alike.

A number of contributing authors were in attendance, including:

Dr. Zeenath generously gifted two colleagues and me with authentic saris that we wore during the closing ceremony and the launch. As you can see from the photo below, I was given one in dark green and I just love it! I had an opportunity to say a few words about the book and its importance in the field, and to thank the organizers and authors. Each contributor was gifted a symbolic souvenir cut-out of the front cover of the handbook and following the formalities, we signed the back of one another’s covers.

The book launch culminated in a celebratory atmosphere, with attendees leaving inspired. The Handbook of Academic Integrity (2nd ed.), now poised to be a cornerstone in the field, builds on the first edition and stands as a testament to the collective commitment to nurturing a culture of integrity throughout every level of education and research.

Photo gallery:

Unveiling of the Handbook of Academic Integrity (2nd ed.) Two people are removing a gold-coloured cover from a poster featuring the book cover. People are standing in the background. There are blue and white balloons on the left edge of the frame.
A group of people standing around a large easel. On the easel is a poster.
An easel showing a large poster.
A photo with a group of people. Each person is holding a cardboard cutout of a book cover.
A photo of a group of people. There is an easel with a poster in the centre.
A photo of a group of people. Each person is holding a cardboard cutout of a book cover.

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This blog has had over 3 million views thanks to readers like you. If you enjoyed this post, please “like” it or share it on social media. Thanks!

Sarah Elaine Eaton, PhD, is a faculty member in the Werklund School of Education at the University of Calgary, Canada. Opinions are my own and do not represent those of my employer.

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A Journey of Reflection: Visiting the Former Kamloops Indian Residential School

November 12, 2023

It has been a while since I’ve posted. The new job has kept me busier than I ever imagined. There’s been lots going on in the academic integrity and artificial intelligence space and I’ll share some updates about that work soon. For now though, I wanted to reflect on my recent visit to Kamloops, British Columbia, which included a stop at the former Kamloops Indian Residential School in Tk’emlups te Secwépemc First Nation. What a profound and emotionally charged experience. The school, once a site of assimilation policies and cultural erasure, stands as a stark reminder of Canada’s colonial history and the enduring impact it has had on Indigenous communities.

Approaching the school grounds, the weight of the history and the gravity of the space were palpable. The imposing school building, now weathered and repurposed, stood as a silent witnesses to the atrocities that took place at that site. I couldn’t help but reflect on my positionality as a settler and the privilege that comes with it. It was a powerful moment to acknowledge the painful truths of the past and to confront the systemic injustices that persist today.

Walking through the grounds of the Kamloops Indian Residential School, I felt a mix of emotions – sorrow, anger, and a profound sense of responsibility. The stories of the Indigenous children who were forcibly taken from their families and subjected to cultural suppression echoed. I did not go inside, but as I stood outside and looked at the windows, I sensed that each room — and every inch of that building — told a story of resilience and survival, but also of loss and trauma that transcends generations.

One of the most haunting aspects of the visit was being in the place for the remains of the first 215 children were found in 2021 in unmarked graves on the school grounds. This added a layer of grief to the already heavy atmosphere. I was quiet for most of the time we were there, processing an overwhelming sense of sorrow. The weight of the knowledge that these children had been forgotten, their stories erased, and their lives devalued, was a somber reminder of the need for reconciliation and justice.

Kamloops Indian Residential School Memorial.

I choked back tears as I stood in front of the memorial at the school. The emotional impact of the visit extended beyond the physical building and the grounds of the school. It prompted deep introspection about the role of settlers in the process of decolonization. Confronting the painful history of the residential school system requires more than acknowledgment; it demands active engagement and commitment to dismantling the ongoing structures of oppression. I felt a renewed sense of responsibility to educate myself, to amplify Indigenous voices, and to advocate for justice.

The power and psychological impact of witnessing the aftermath of cultural genocide is something I find difficult to express… and simultaneously, it also cannot be understated. I realized that I was not only recognizing — but reckoning with — my privilege in more visceral way than I ever had before, which further galvanized my commitment to challenging the systems that uphold colonial legacies.

The visit concluded with a walk through the healing garden with 215 plants, one for each body of a missing child buried at the site. With winter approaching, the garden is done for the season and the symbolism of visiting the garden when the plants were withered was symbolic and profound. Nevertheless, I sensed the hope and healing as we walked through the space were plants will grow again next year.

The experience of visiting the former Kamloops Indian Residential School was transformative and the memory of it will stay with me for a long time. It served as a reminder of the deep wounds inflicted by colonialism and the ongoing responsibility of settlers to actively participate in the process of decolonization. The emotional and psychological impact of confronting this painful history underscored the need to work towards a more just and equitable future for all.

Visiting a former residential school is both individual journey, and also part of our collective responsibility to decolonization and social justice. This visit provided tangible connection to the painful legacy of colonialism, fostering empathy and understanding — and it is an experience that I recommend. To bear witness, confront uncomfortable truths, and actively contribute to reconciliation are just a few of the reasons why I would recommend a visit a former residential school (and this one in particular). A visit to a former residential school is a step towards Truth and Reconciliation; one step in a long journey, and one that is well worth it. 

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This blog has had over 3 million views thanks to readers like you. If you enjoyed this post, please “like” it or share it on social media. Thanks!

Sarah Elaine Eaton, PhD, is a faculty member in the Werklund School of Education at the University of Calgary, Canada. Opinions are my own and do not represent those of my employer.

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New Role: Academic Director, Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion (EDI), Education, and Academic Integrity

August 9, 2023

On July 1, 2023 I started a new role at the University of Calgary as the Academic Director, Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion (EDI), Education, and Academic Integrity. I have the privilege of working with Dr. Malinda Smith, Vice-Provost, EDI, and an entire team of academic and professional staff whose primary focus is on equity, diversity, inclusion, and accessibility.

In this role, I will:

  • Continue to build awareness of equity, diversity, inclusion, and accessibility as they relate to academic ethics across the university.
  • Advise and contribute to the development of resources and supports on academic ethics needed for leaders, academic staff, managers, support staff, students and other university stakeholders.
  • Develop local, regional, and national partnerships that connect initiatives related to academic ethics as they pertain to equity, diversity, inclusion, and accessibility.
  • Facilitate campus conversations related to academic ethics through existing networks, committees, and other informal and formal groups.
  • Develop action-oriented recommendations related to academic ethics from the perspective of equity, diversity, inclusion, and accessibility.
  • Focus on equity-deserving groups that include, but are not limited to, international students, visiting students, post-doctoral fellows, and early career researchers. 

For a few years now, my research and advocacy work as included a more intense focus on social justice, advocacy, and equity. Here is some work I’ve done in the past few years that led to this role that might be helpful if you’re looking for resources on this topic:

The forthcoming Handbook of Academic Integrity (2nd ed.) has a brand new section on Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion in Academic Integrity. Dr. Ceceilia Parnther serves as the Section Editor. Bringing this topic to light in the handbook will help to centre important conversations about discrimination and advocacy for student success and the student experience.

I am excited to take on this work and look forward to the ways in which we can make progress on these important matters.

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This blog has had over 3 million views thanks to readers like you. If you enjoyed this post, please “like” it or share it on social media. Thanks! Sarah Elaine Eaton, PhD, is a faculty member in the Werklund School of Education, and the Educational Leader in Residence, Academic Integrity, University of Calgary, Canada. Opinions are my own and do not represent those of the University of Calgary.

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