A Wraparound Approach to Academic Integrity: Centering Students in the Postplagiarism Era

May 7, 2025


I am trying out SSRN. I feel like this is something I should have known about long ago. Last year, one of the doctoral students whom I supervise, Myke Healy, posted a paper about academic integrity in secondary schools on SSRN. (It’s a really good ready, by the way.)

Then, a research team that I’m on posted our rapid review protocol pre-print on assessment, academic integrity, and artificial intelligence on SSRN. Myke is on our team and posted the paper on our behalf.

On my recent travels, I was listening to Malcolm Gladwell’s podcast, Revisionist History. In one of episodes (I forget which one exactly), Gladwell raves about SSRN. I mean, gushes.

I thought to myself, “Well, it seems the universe is asking me to pay attention to SSRN.” So, I did.

I got working on a paper that had been sort of lingering for a couple of years. (Yes, a couple of years. Good work takes time!) I unpacked the ideas, developed the argument, referenced people whose contributions influenced and shaped my thinking and got it formatted.

So, I’ve now posted my first paper on SSRN:
Eaton, S. E. (2025). A Wraparound Approach to Academic Integrity: Centering Students in the Postplagiarism Era (April 20, 2025). SSRN. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5223911

I’m not really sure what happens next. There doesn’t really seem to be a place for folks to comment on the paper, though you can download it and add it to your library. I guess the next step is to submit it to a journal and go from there.

If you use SSRN and have tips on how to make the most of it, feel free to share. I’m learning as I go and I’m all ears.

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Sarah Elaine Eaton, PhD, is a Professor and Research Chair in the Werklund School of Education at the University of Calgary, Canada. Opinions are my own and do not represent those of my employer.

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Fake Degrees, Fraudulent Credentials and the Ecosystem of Commercial Academic Fraud

April 10, 2025

Since 2020 I’ve been working with a number of collaborators on projects related to fake degrees, diploma mills, and credential fraud. One of the people I have had the privilege of working with is FBI Special Agent (ret.), Allen Ezell, who is one of the world’s leading experts on  fake degrees and accreditation fraud. 

I’ve spent countless hours on the phone with Allen and have exchanged dozens, if not hundreds, of e-mails with him, over the years. Now in his 80s, Allen is one of the world’s finest experts on the topic. He contributed a fascinating chapter called “Yesterday, today, and tomorrow: A tour of Axact, the ‘World’s Largest Diploma Mill’” to our book, Fake Degrees and Fraudulent Credentials in Higher Education. 

We also learned from other contributors to the book that the companies who sell fake credentials don’t stop there. They can also provide contact cheating services (often under the guise of ‘research services’), fake admission letters, fake transcripts, fraud in standardized testing (e.g., sending impersonators to write English language proficiency tests), and much more. 

In the introduction for the book, we connect the dots to show how admissions fraud, contract cheating (e.g., term paper mills), scientific and scholarly paper mills, and fake degrees and fraudulent credentials are all connected. We synthesize the key ideas in this infographic:

Diagram titled "The Ecosystem of Commercial Academic Fraud" by Eaton & Carmichael (2022), showing four overlapping colored circles, each representing a type of academic fraud, with "Fraud" in the center where all circles overlap. The categories are: Degree Mills (red): Fake and fraudulent diplomas, transcripts, reference letters, and other academic and professional documents. Contract Cheating (orange): Outsourced student academic work including term paper mills, assignment completion services, thesis writing services, and student proxy services. Admissions Fraud (green): Impersonation and fraud services for standardized admissions testing (e.g., SATs), language proficiency testing, and unethical educational agents. Paper Mills (blue): Manufactured scholarly and scientific publications, authorship for sale. Each category overlaps in the center to show they are part of a broader ecosystem of fraud. The image includes a citation and Creative Commons license at the bottom.

It is difficult to get a handle on the exact size and scope of the industry, but based on what we know, we estimated that the industry is worth at least $21 Billion USD, and we figure that is a low estimate.

Throughout the past half-decade, we’ve developed a number of resources related to these topics. I’ve posted about them previously, but I figured it might be helpful if I gathered some of them into a single blog post. They are all freely available as open access resources.

Counterfeit Credentials: 13 Recommendations for Higher Education Professionals

Infographic titled "Counterfeit Credentials: Top 13 Recommendations for Higher Education Professionals" by Carmichael & Eaton (2020). It offers guidance to help institutions detect and prevent the use of fake degrees and fraudulent documents in admissions and hiring. The recommendations are: 1. Use a direct transmission system for admission applications – Electronic grade submissions reduce tampering. 2. Consider an evaluation service – Evaluate transcripts against program requirements. 3. Know the signs of a fake degree – Check for authenticity, spelling, watermarks, correct language, matching data points. 4. Employ a transcript sharing service – Use secure repositories or verify hand-delivered transcripts. 5. Don't say cheese – Warn students not to post degrees online due to risk of fraud. 6. Compare interim and final grades – Ensures data integrity. 7. Audit your systems routinely – Think like a hacker to uncover weaknesses. 8. Beware of strip mall schools – Diploma mills that mimic real institutions; create internal databases for tracking. 9. Take stock of your transcript paper – Use serial numbers and compare for inconsistencies. 10. Learn how to spot a bogus transcript – Identify fakes by comparing submitted transcripts. 11. Verify education credentials when hiring – Check for linear academic progression and verify references beyond website searches. 12. Investigate whistleblower claims – Some student reports may be legitimate and need proper review. 13. Leverage your professional network – Share practices, investigate cases, or lobby for change. References and contact emails (jamie.carmichael@carleton.ca; seaton@ucalgary.ca) are included for further information.

This infographic is intended mainly for registrars, admissions staff, admissions committees and others whose work involves assessing the credentials of applicants for university and college programs. 

Scholarships Without Scruples

In this infographic, Jamie Carmichael and I share signs of scholarship scams, which is one from of educational fraud:

Infographic titled “Scholarships Without Scruples – 3 Signs of Scholarship Scams.” Credit Card Required: Don’t give out your credit card number. Legitimate scholarship applications never ask for this information. Discount in Disguise: You should not have to buy anything to receive a scholarship. Legit scholarships never require payment for goods or services. Tax Trickery: Legit scholarships are taxed differently than earned income. If proper tax documentation isn’t provided, it may not be a real scholarship. At the bottom: “Find out more” – Contact information for Sarah Elaine Eaton (University of Calgary, seaton@ucalgary.ca) and Jamie Carmichael (Carleton University, Jamie.Carmichael@Carleton.ca). Footer text: “Scholarship scams are real. Learn how to protect yourself!”

When it comes to education fraud, there are many angles to consider. There is certainly a need for more research, awareness, and advocacy on these topics, especially as GenAI can make these types of fraud easier.

Below are some related posts and further resources that I hope you find helpful.

Related posts

References and Resources

  • Carmichael, J. (2023, June 7). Understanding Fake Degrees and Credential Fraud in Higher Ed. The Evollution: A Modern Campus Illumination. https://evolllution.com/programming/credentials/understanding-fake-degrees-and-credential-fraud-in-higher-ed/
  • Carmichael, J. J. (2024). Reframing and Broadening Adversarial Stylometry for Academic Integrity. In S. E. Eaton (Ed.), Second Handbook of Academic Integrity (pp. 1467-1485). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54144-5_148 
  • Carmichael, J., & Eaton, S. E. (2020). Counterfeit Credentials: Top 13 Recommendations for Higher Education Professionals (Infographic). University of Calgary. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/113042 
  • Clark, A. (2023). Examining the problem of fraudulent English test scores: What can Canadian higher education institutions learn? In S. E. Eaton, J. J. Carmichael, & H. Pethrick (Eds.), Fake Degrees and Fraudulent Credentials in Higher Education (pp. 187-207). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21796-8_9 
  • Çelik, Ö., & Razı, S. (2023). Avoiding favouritism in the recruitment practice of Turkish higher education institutions. In S. E. Eaton, J. J. Carmichael, & H. Pethrick (Eds.), Fake Degrees and Fraudulent Credentials in Higher Education (pp. 153-167). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21796-8_7 
  • DeCoster, B. (2023). There is no culture? A framework for addressing admissions fraud. In S. E. Eaton, J. J. Carmichael, & H. Pethrick (Eds.), Fake Degrees and Fraudulent Credentials in Higher Education (pp. 209-226). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21796-8_10 
  • Duklas, J. (2023). Bridging to tomorrow: A historical and technological review of credential exchange in higher education within Canada. In S. E. Eaton, J. J. Carmichael, & H. Pethrick (Eds.), Fake Degrees and Fraudulent Credentials in Higher Education (pp. 95-113). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21796-8_4
  • Eaton, S. E., & Carmichael, J. (2020). Scholarships without scruples (Infographic). University of Calgary: http://hdl.handle.net/1880/113044
  • Eaton, S. E., & Carmichael, J. (2022). The Ecosystem of Commercial Academic Fraud. University of Calgary. https://dx.doi.org/10.11575/PRISM/40330
  • Eaton, S. E., Carmichael, J., & Pethrick, H. (Eds.). (2023). Fake degrees and credential fraud in higher education. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21796-8
  • Ezell, A. (2023). Yesterday, today, and tomorrow: A tour of Axact, the “World’s Largest Diploma Mill”. In S. E. Eaton, J. J. Carmichael, & H. Pethrick (Eds.), Fake Degrees and Fraudulent Credentials in Higher Education (pp. 49-94). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21796-8_3 
  • Hextrum, K. (2023). Fair play, fraud, or fixed? Athletic credentials in U.S. higher education. In S. E. Eaton, J. J. Carmichael, & H. Pethrick (Eds.), Fake Degrees and Fraudulent Credentials in Higher Education (pp. 115-132). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21796-8_5
  • Orim, S.-M., & Glendinning, I. (2023). Corruption in admissions, recruitment, qualifications and credentials: From research into quality assurance. In S. E. Eaton, J. J. Carmichael, & H. Pethrick (Eds.), Fake Degrees and Fraudulent Credentials in Higher Education (pp. 133-151). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21796-8_6
  • Sabbaghan, S., & Fazel, I. (2023). None of the above: Integrity concerns of standardized English proficiency tests. In S. E. Eaton, J. J. Carmichael, & H. Pethrick (Eds.), Fake Degrees and Fraudulent Credentials in Higher Education (pp. 169-185). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21796-8_8

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Sarah Elaine Eaton, PhD, is a Professor and Research Chair in the Werklund School of Education at the University of Calgary, Canada. Opinions are my own and do not represent those of my employer. 

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IELTS Exam Fraud: Is large-scale cheating really a shock to anyone?

January 7, 2025
A screenshot from an online news story. There is a photo of students taking an exam. There is black text on a white background.

The headline reads, “IELTS exam fraud scandal ‘shocks’ Indonesia“, as reported by Vietnam.vn. The article goes on to offer details about large-scale cheating on English-language proficiency testing, saying that, “Faced with the increasing incidence of fraud, many prestigious universities around the world have adjusted their admission policies, especially regarding IELTS requirements.”

Contract cheating and exam proxies (i.e., impersonators) are at the heart of the scandal, with customers each paying about 47,000,000 Vietnamese Dong (which seems to convert to about $1851 USD or $2650 CAD, according to one online currency exchange website).

The article reports that these cheating incidents have caused schools in Singapore, Australia, and the US to raise the minimum test score for entrance to certain programs. (I am puzzled as to why schools think that raising the minimum score for admissions will prevent cheating on standardized texts used as an entrance requirement? My guess is that it might just drive up the price of fraud…)

Two chapters from our edited book, Fake Degrees and Fraudulent Credentials in Higher Education (Eaton, Carmichael, and Pethrick, 2023) are worth mentioning, as the authors of both chapters raised the alarm about the issue of large-scale global cheating on English language proficiency exams.

Soroush Sabbaghan (University of Calgary) and Ismaeil Fazel (University of British Columbia) in their chapter, ‘None of the above: Integrity concerns of standardized English proficiency tests’, “shed light on the complexities and the apparent disconnect between equity, integrity, fairness, and justice in standardized language proficiency tests and the integrity issues that can arise as a result.”

Angela Clark (York University), in her chapter, “Examining the Problem of Fraudulent English Test Scores: What Can Canadian Higher Education Institutions Learn?”, argues that “relying on a single language proficiency test score to determine an individual’s readiness is problematic, and also problematic is the lack of related academic research and data to help guide admissions decision-making”. She looks at media reports from the UK, US, and Canada, noting that, “Media reports and a lack of data serve to promote distrust of the language testing process and the test scores that institutions receive.”

Cheating on English language proficiency exams is nothing new and nor is it isolated to any one country.

Both of these chapters are thoroughly researched and well written. If you’re interested in the topic of fraud in English language exams, I recommend checking them out. In the meantime, large-scale cheating on standardized tests and the related problem of admissions fraud should shock exactly no one.

References

Clark, A. (2023). Examining the problem of fraudulent English test scores: What can Canadian higher education institutions learn? In S. E. Eaton, J. J. Carmichael, & H. Pethrick (Eds.), Fake Degrees and Fraudulent Credentials in Higher Education (pp. 187-207). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21796-8_9 

IELTS exam fraud scandal “shocks” Indonesia. (2024, December 28). Vietnam.vn. https://www.vietnam.vn/en/be-boi-thi-ho-ielts-rung-dong-indonesia/

Sabbaghan, S., & Fazel, I. (2023). None of the above: Integrity concerns of standardized English proficiency tests. In S. E. Eaton, J. J. Carmichael, & H. Pethrick (Eds.), Fake Degrees and Fraudulent Credentials in Higher Education (pp. 169-185). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21796-8_8 

Related posts:

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Sarah Elaine Eaton, PhD, is a Professor and Research Chair in the Werklund School of Education at the University of Calgary, Canada. Opinions are my own and do not represent those of my employer. 

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Inclusive Academic Integrity: A Holistic Approach to Ethical Learning for Everyone

November 15, 2024

Earlier this semester, I accepted a new leadership role in the Werklund School of Education as the Academic Coordinator of the Master of Education (MEd) graduate topic in Inclusive Education. (We are accepting applications the 2025-2026 academic year, in case you’ve been thinking about doing an MEd. It is a fully online four-course topic.)

This got me thinking about academic integrity through an inclusive lens. My interest in the connection between social justice, equity, inclusion, and accessibility goes back a few years. In 2022, I partnered with a Werklund graduate student in educational psychology, Rachel Pagaling, and Dr. Brenda McDermott, Senior Manager, Student Accessibility Services to write up a brief open access report on Academic Integrity Considerations for Accessibility, Equity and Inclusion.

A lot more work has been done in this area since we wrote that report. Professor Mary Davis has been a particular champion of this topic. Her 2022 open access article, Examining and improving inclusive practice in institutional academic integrity policies, procedures, teaching and support, is worth checking out. There is also an entire section of the Second Handbook of Academic Integrity (2024) dedicated to equity, diversity, inclusion, accessibility, and decolonization. 

We know that academic integrity is a cornerstone of both K-12 and higher education. We want to ensure that learning, assessment, and credentials uphold the highest ethical standards. However, as educators, we can — and should — consider how the principles of inclusive education can strengthen and complement our approach to academic integrity.

Inclusive education means ensuring that all students, regardless of their background, abilities, or learning needs, have equitable access to educational opportunities and can meaningfully participate. Thomas and May sum it up nicely when they say that being inclusive means “proactively making higher education accessible, relevant and engaging to all students” (p. 5).  Of course, the same thinking could be extended to K-12 education, too. Applying these inclusive principles to academic integrity means recognizing that diverse learners may express and demonstrate their knowledge in different ways. 

Inclusion is not only about students with physical disabilities, developmental disabilities, or neurodivergence, but rather it is about creating conditions where all students can thrive. Associate Professor Joanna Tai and colleagues have a great article on Assessment for Inclusion that helps us think about how to design equitable and rigorous.

In addition, Dr. Eliana Elkhoury has a great chapter on how to create, An Equitable Approach to Academic Integrity Through Alternative Assessment.

The point here is that by fostering an inclusive academic culture, we empower all students to bring their best selves to school and learn with integrity.

Beyond accessibility and cultural responsiveness, inclusive academic integrity also means actively addressing systemic barriers and implicit biases. If certain groups of students consistently struggle with academic integrity issues, it may reveal deeper inequities that need to be examined and addressed. In other words, we can look at the barriers to success, rather than the limitations of our students, as being the problem. As Juuso Nieminen and I have pointed out, even accommodations policies have an underlying assumption that students who need accommodations are out to cheat the system. 

If you’re interested in reading more about disability justice to inform your thinking, I highly recommend Doron Dorfman’s article on the fear of the disability con and Jay Dolman’s work on academic ableism.

The benefits of this holistic, inclusive approach to academic integrity are numerous. When students feel respected, supported, and able to succeed, they are more engaged and motivated. This, in turn, leads to better learning outcomes. Moreover, graduates who have internalized inclusive academic integrity will be better equipped to uphold ethical standards in their future careers and communities.

As educators, we have a responsibility to nurture academic integrity in ways that are inclusive, accessible, culturally responsive, and empowering for diverse learners. By applying the principles of inclusive education, we can transform academic integrity from a rigid set of rules into a collaborative, values-driven endeavor that brings out the best in our students and ourselves.

References

Davis, M. (2022). Examining and improving inclusive practice in institutional academic integrity policies, procedures, teaching and support. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 18(1), 14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-022-00108-x 

Dolmage, J. T. (2017). Academic Ableism: Disability and Higher Education. University of Michigan Press. 

Dorfman, D. (2019). Fear of the disability con: Perceptions of fraud and special rights discourse. Law & society review, 53(4), 1051-1091. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12437 

Elkhoury, E. (2024). An Equitable Approach to Academic Integrity Through Alternative Assessment. In S. E. Eaton (Ed.), Second Handbook of Academic Integrity (pp. 1261-1272). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54144-5_135 

Nieminen, J. H., & Eaton, S. E. (2023). Are assessment accommodations cheating? A critical policy analysis. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2023.2259632 

Pagaling, R., Eaton, S. E., & McDermott, B. (2022, April 4). Academic Integrity: Considerations for Accessibility, Equity, and Inclusion. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/114519

Thomas, L., & May, H. (2010). Inclusive learning and teaching in Higher Education. Higher Education Academy. https://www.advance-he.ac.uk/knowledge-hub/inclusive-learning-and-teaching-higher-education

Tai, J., Ajjawi, R., Bearman, M., Boud, D., Dawson, P., & Jorre de St Jorre, T. (Eds.). (2022). Assessment for inclusion: rethinking contemporary strategies in assessment design. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2022.2057451 

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This blog has had over 3 million views thanks to readers like you. If you enjoyed this post, please “like” it or share it on social media. Thanks!

Sarah Elaine Eaton, PhD, is a Professor and Research Chair in the Werklund School of Education at the University of Calgary, Canada. Opinions are my own and do not represent those of my employer.

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Future-proofing integrity in the age of artificial intelligence and neurotechnology: Prioritizing human rights, dignity, and equity

November 13, 2024

Once a year I write an editorial for the International Journal for Educational Integrity. I take a big idea, ground it in literature written by some of the best in the world and then call for ways to improve our field even more. In 2023 I wrote about Postplagiarism and in 2022, I focused on equity, diversity, inclusion, accessibility and decolonization as new priorities for academic integrity. Here is this year’s editorial:

Future-proofing integrity in the age of artificial intelligence and neurotechnology: prioritizing human rights, dignity, and equity

A screenshot of an article title page. There is black text on a white background with a green banner at the top. Here is a link to the original: https://edintegrity.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1007/s40979-024-00175-2

Abstract

In this article I argue for the prioritisation of human rights when developing and implementing misconduct policies. Existing approaches may be perpetuate inequities, particularly for individuals from marginalised groups. A human-rights-by-design approach, which centres human rights in policy development, revision, and implementation, ensuring that every individual is treated with dignity and respect.

Recommendations for implementing a human-rights approach to misconduct investigations and case management are offered, covering areas such as procedural fairness, privacy, equity, and the right to education. Additional topics covered are the need to limit surveillance technologies, and the need to recognize that not all use of artificial intelligence tools automatically constitutes misconduct. I disentangle

the differences between equity and equality and explain how both are important when considering ethics and integrity. A central argument of this paper is that a human-rights-by-design approach to integrity does not diminish standards but rather strengthens educational systems by cultivating ethical awareness and respect for personhood. I conclude with a call to action with a seven-point plan for institutions to adopt a human-rights-based approach to ethics and integrity. In the age of artificial intelligence and neurotechnology, insisting on human rights and dignity when we investigate and address misconduct allegations is an ethical imperative that has never been more important.

Keywords Academic misconduct, Academic dishonesty, Plagiarism, Policy, Human rights, Restorative justice, Artificial intelligence, Neurotechnology, Higher education, Education

Commentary

As I reflect on the current state of academic and research integrity, I am struck by a glaring omission in our discussions: the connection between misconduct and human rights. We often treat these as separate entities, failing to recognize the profound impact that misconduct investigations and policies can have on the fundamental rights of individuals. This oversight is particularly concerning in the age of artificial intelligence (AI) and neurotechnology, where the potential for harm is magnified.

Take, for example, the case of a professor in Canada who physically assaulted international students accused of plagiarism. This horrifying example demonstrates how the pursuit of academic integrity can be twisted into a justification for degrading and inhumane treatment, violating the very principles of dignity and respect that should guide our actions. While this is an extreme case, it highlights the need for a fundamental shift in our approach.

In this editorial, I offer a call to action to move beyond simply adhering to legal requirements and embrace a ‘human-rights-by-design’ approach that embeds human rights principles into our policies and practices. This means ensuring procedural fairness throughout investigations, safeguarding the privacy of individuals, and recognizing the right to be presumed innocent until there is proof to the contrary. It also requires us to acknowledge the diverse backgrounds and circumstances of our students and staff, striving for equitable treatment that addresses systemic inequalities and provides the support needed for everyone to succeed.

In the face of rapidly evolving technologies like AI, we must be especially vigilant in upholding human rights. The temptation to rely on unproven AI detection tools or to rush to judgement based on suspicion rather than evidence is strong, but it is a path that leads us away from justice and fairness. We cannot allow fear or expediency to erode our commitment to human dignity.

By centring human rights in our approach to integrity, we can create educational and research environments that are not only ethically sound but also truly just and equitable. This is not about lowering standards; it is about building a culture of integrity that upholds the inherent worth of every individual.

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This blog has had over 3 million views thanks to readers like you. If you enjoyed this post, please “like” it or share it on social media. Thanks!

Sarah Elaine Eaton, PhD, is a Professor and Research Chair in the Werklund School of Education at the University of Calgary, Canada. Opinions are my own and do not represent those of my employer.

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